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THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR:

CAUSES, STRATEGIES AND LESSONS LEARNT.

WRITTEN BY

MAJOR ABUBAKAR .A. ATOFARATI

STUDENT: US MARINE COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

ACADEMIC-YEAR 1991/92

 source: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1992/AAA.htm

                        CONTENTS

1.    List of Maps.

2.    Outline.

3.    Introduction.

4.    Executive Summary.

5.    Background History of Nigeria.

6.    History of the Nigerian Army before 1966.

7.    The War - Planning Strategies.

8.    The Clash of Arms.

9.    Lessons Learnt.

10.   Conclusion.

11.   Bibliography.

                         LIST OF MAPS

1.   Map  1  : The four Regions of Nigeria.

2.   Map  2  : The twelve states of Nigeria.

3.   Map  3  : The liberation of the Mid - Western state.

4.   Map  4  : The front line in mid - 1969.

5.   Map  5  : The final offensive.

                         THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR

                   CAUSES, STRATEGIES, AND LESSONS LEARNT

OUTLINE

The Nigerian Civil War was fought to reintegrate and reunify

the country.  This paper will focus on the causes of the war, strategies

employed by the belligerents in the conflict, and the  lessons learnt.

I.      Background History of Nigeria

II.     History of the Nigerian Army before 1966

III.    The War - Planning Strategies

IV.     The Clash of Arms

V.      Lessons Learnt

VI.     Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

The Federation of Nigeria, as it is known today, has never really

been one homogeneous country, for it's widely differing peoples and

tribes.  This obvious fact notwithstanding, the former colonial master

decided to keep the country one in order to effectively control her

vital resources for their economic interests.  Thus, for administrative

convenience the Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated in 1914.

Thereafter the only thing this people had in common was the name of

their country since each side had different administrative set - up.

This alone was an insufficient basis for true unity.  Under normal

circumstances the amagalmation ought to have brought the various peoples

together and provided a firm basis for the arduous task of establishing

closer cultural, social, religious, and linguistic ties vital for true

unity among the people.  There was division, hatred, unhealthy rivalry,

and pronounced disparity in development.

The growth of nationalism in the society and the subsequent

emergence of political parties were based on ethnic/tribal rather than

national interests, and therefore had no unifying effect on the peoples

against the colonial master.  Rather, it was the people themselves who

were the victims of the political struggles which were supposed to be

aimed at removing foreign domination.  At independence Nigeria became a

Federation and remained one country.  Soon afterwards the battle to

consolidate the legacy of political and military dominance of a section

of Nigeria over the rest of the Federation began with increased

intensity.  It is this struggle that eventually degenerated into coup,

counter coup and a bloody civil war. 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Nigerian Civil War broke out on 6 July 1967.  The war was the

culmination of an uneasy peace and stability that had plagued the Nation

from independence in 1960.  This situation had its genesis in the

geography, history, culture and demography of Nigeria.

The immediate cause of the civil war itself may be identified as

the coup and the counter coup of 1966 which altered the political

equation and destroyed the fragile trust existing among the major ethnic

groups.  As a means of holding the country together in the last result,

the country was divided into twelve states from the original four

regions in May 1967.  The former Eastern Region under Lt. Col. Ojukwu saw

the act of the creation of states by decree "without consultation" as

the last straw, and declared the Region an independent state of

"Biafra".  The Federal Government in Lagos saw this as an act of

secession and illegal.  Several meetings were held to resolve the issue

peacefully without success.  To avoid disintegration of the country, the

central government was left with only one choice of bringing  back the

Region to the main fold by force.

The Federal side expected a quick victory while the Biafrans saw

the war as that of survival and were ready to fight to the last man.

By August 1967, the war had been extended to the Mid - Western Region by

the Biafrans with the aim to relief pressure on the northern front and

to threaten the Federal Capital, Lagos.  Both sides employed Political,

Diplomatic, Psychological and Military strategies to prosecute the war.

By the end of April 1969, after almost two years of bloody and

destructive war, the envisioned quick victory had eluded the Federal

side, the rebel enclave had been drastically reduced in size but the

Biafrans were still holding on.  More peace conferences were held but

none achieved a cease - fire and an end to the war.  The Federals

embarked on a strategic envelopment of the remaining Biafran enclave.  By

the Christmas of 1969, it was obvious that the end of the civil war was

near.

The self - acclaimed Head of State of Biafra, Lt. Col. Ojukwu,

realizing the hopelessness of the situation fled the enclave with his

immediate family members on the 10th of January 1970.  The Commander of

the Biafran Army who took over the administration of the remaining

enclave surrendered to the Federal Government on 14th January 1970

bringing an end to the war, secessionist attempt and bloodshed.

Several lessons were learnt from the war and these have helped in

the unification, political, military and economical progress of the

country.

THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR CAUSES, STRATEGIES AND LESSONS LEARNT

The Nigerian civil war, popularly known all over the world as the

"Biafran War"  was fought from 2 July 1967 to 15 January 1970.  The war

was between the then Eastern Region of Nigeria and the rest of the

country.  The Eastern Region declared itself an independent state which

was regarded as an act of secession by the Federal Military Government

of Nigeria.  The war was fought to reunify the country.  In order to

understand what led to the civil war, it is necessary to give a brief

background history of Nigeria.

BACKGROUND HISTORY OF NIGERIA

The land mass known today as Nigeria existed as a number of

independent and sometimes hostile national states with linguistic and

cultural differences until 1900.  The Governor General of Nigeria between

1920 - 31 , Sir Hugh Clifford, described Nigeria as  "a collection of

independent Native States, separated from one another  by great

distances, by differences of history and traditions and by ethnological,

racial, tribal, political, social and religious barriers."  (Nigeria

Council Debate.  Lagos, 1920).   The building of Nigeria as a multi -

national state began in 1900 with the creation of Northern and Southern

Protectorates along with the colony of Lagos by the British government.

Further effort at unification and integration was made in May 1906 when

the colony of Lagos and the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, which had

existed separately, were amalgamated to become the Colony and

Protectorate of Southern Nigeria.

Even then the Northern and the Southern Administration were

separate and distinct.  Both were independent of one another and each was

directly  responsible to the Colonial Office.  The first momentous act of

the British in the political evolution of Nigeria as a modern state was

the amalgamation of the administration of the two sections of Nigeria on

1 January 1914 by Lord Lugard.  For ease of governing and in the economic

interest of the British, indirect rule and separate development policy

were maintained in the two sections of the country, with the amalgamated

administration based in Lagos.  This, in effect produced two Nigerias, each

with different social, political, economic, and cultural backgrounds and

development within the country.

No further constitutional development took place until 1922.  The

1922 constitution made provision, for the first time,  for elected members

to sit on a Nigerian legislative council, but did not empower them to

make laws for the North.   Nigeria was divided into four administrative

units in 1940;  the colony of Lagos, the Northern, Eastern and Western

provinces.  This administrative divisions, with increased power for the

colony and the provinces, was not only maintained but separateness was

also strengthened and deepened by Sir Arthur Richardson's constitution

of 1946 which inaugurated Nigeria's regionalism.  It however achieved a

half - hearted political breakthrough by integrating the North with the

South at the legislative level for the first time.

The post second World War political awareness and upsurge of

nationalism in Africa brought about the Richardson's constitution of

1950.  Political parties were formed on regional and ethnic basis.

The outcome of this was obvious:  full scale regionalism.  With the

Macpherson's constitution of 1951, a greater measure of autonomy was

granted the regions with stronger regional legislatures.  With only

residual power left to the central government, Nigeria politically took

a turn for the worse, and there was a possibility of three countries

emerging out of Nigeria.

In 1953, the central cabinet was split over the acceptance of a

target date for securing self - government with the end result of the

Kano riot.  The gap between the regions widened.  For the first time the

North talked openly of the possibility of secession rather than endure

what they saw as humiliation and ill - treatment.  The West also threatened

to secede over the non - inclusion of Lagos in the West in the new

constitution.  The 1954 constitution confirmed and formalized the wishes

of Nigerian leaders to move and remain as far apart as they possibly

could.  The choice between Unitary and Federal options in the form of

government had been irrevocably made.  The leaders settled for Federal

option.  Thereafter things happened fast in the political arena.  There

were constitutional conferences in 1957, 1958, 1959 and in 1960

culminating in the granting of independence to Nigeria on October

1, 1960.

It should be noted that from 1954 onwards, the political direction

was constantly away from a strong center towards a formidable, almost

insulation of the regional base of each major political party.  The

failure of the Willink commission to recommend the creation of more

states in 1958 for the Nigerian type of federalism planted the most

potent seed of instability into the evolution of Nigeria as a nation in

the 1950s.  All the political leaders who had strong and firm political

bases in the regions fought hard for maximum powers for the regions

which weakened the center.  At the same time,  the ugly embers of

tribalism and sectionalism had been fanned into a deadly flame by all

the political leaders.  These leaders rode on the crest of this cancerous

tribalism and ignorance of the people to power, at the expense of

national unity and the nation.

Instead of regionalism ensuring and preserving national unity, it

became its bane.  There were diffusion instead of fusion of the three

units.  According to Gen. Obasanjo:  "The only point on which Nigerian

political leaders spoke with one voice was the granting by the British

of political  independence - and even then they did not agree on the

timing."  (5:3)   With granting of independence in 1960, all the dirt,

swept under the carpet, surfaced.  Nigeria was now beset by strings of

political problems which stemmed from the lop-sided nature of the

political divisions of the country and the type of the existing federal

constitution, and the spirit in which it operated.

The first post independence disturbance was over the defense

agreement between Great Britain and Nigeria, which was seen as "an

attempt  (by Britain)  to swindle Nigeria out of her sovereignty", by

contracting with Nigeria  to afford each other such assistance as may be

necessary for mutual defense and to consult together on measures to be

taken jointly or separately to ensure the fullest cooperation between

them for this purpose.  It was viewed an unequal treaty.  Through student

demonstrations and vehement opposition by the general public and members

of the Federal House of Representatives, the agreement was abrogated in

December 1962.

This episode was nothing compared with later developments in the

country's turbulent political history.  The general census conducted in

1962 was alleged to be riddled with malpractices and inflation of

figures of such astronomical proportions that the Eastern Region refused

to accept the  result.  A second census was carried out in 1963, and even

then the figures were accepted with some reservations.  Meanwhile the

people of the Middle Belt area of the North had grown increasingly

intolerant of the NPC rule of the North.  The Tiv, one of the major

tribes in the Middle Belt, openly rioted for almost three years

(1962 - 1965).  Then came the biggest crisis of them all - the general

election of  1964.  The election was alleged to be neither free nor fair.

All devices imaginable were said to have been used by the ruling parties

in the regions to eliminate opponents.

The Chairman of the Electoral Commission himself admitted there

were proven irregularities.  The President, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe refused to

appoint a Prime Minister in the light of these allegations.  The

President and the incumbent Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa,

were each seeking the support of the Armed Forces.  This marked the first

involvement of the Armed Forces in partisan politics.  For four anxious

days,  the nation waited until the President announced that he had

appointed the incumbent Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa,  to

form a broad based government.  The same could not be said of the Western

Region election of 1965.  The rigging and irregularities in the election

were alleged to be more brazen and more shameful.  Law and order broke

down completely leading to an almost complete state of anarchy.  Arson

and indiscriminate killings were committed by a private army of thugs of

political parties.  Law abiding citizens lived in constant fear of their

lives and properties.

This was the state of affairs when the coup of 15 January 1966 took

place.   "As an immediate cause,  it might be claimed that the explosion of

that day could be traced back along the powder trail to the fuse lit at

the time of the Western Region election of October 1965."  (5:6)  The

aim of the coup was to establish a strong, unified and prosperous

nation, free from corruption and internal strife.  The outcome of the

half-hearted and ill-fated coup was a change of political balance in the

country.  Major Nzeogwu's  (the leader of the coup)  aims for the coup was

not borne out of its method, style and results.  All the politicians and

senior military officers killed were from the North and Western Region

except a political leader and a senior Army officer from the Mid - West

and the East respectively.

The coup hastened the collapse of Nigeria.  "The Federation was sick

at birth and by January 1966,  the sick, bedridden babe

collapsed." (1:210)  From independence to January 1966, the country had

been in a serious turmoil;  but the coup put her in an even greater

situation.  Most of the coup planners were of Eastern origin, thus the

Northerners in particular saw it as a deliberate plan to eliminate the

political heavy weights in the North in order to pave way for the

Easterners to take over the leadership role from them.  The sky high

praises of the coup and apparent relief given by it in the south came to

a sudden end when the succeeding Military Government of

Maj Gen. J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi, an Easterner, unfolded its plans.  If

Ironsi had displayed a greater sensitivity to the thinking of the

Northerners, he could have capitalized on the relief that immediately

followed the coup.

But in addition to his failure to take advantage of the

initial  favorable reaction to the coup, he did not know what to do

with the ring  leaders who had been arrested.  He did not know whether to

treat them as heroes of the revolution or send them before a court

martial as mutineers and murderers.  Military Governors were appointed to

oversee the administration of the regions.  In the North the numbed

favorable reaction in certain quarters turned to studied silence and a

"wait and see" attitude.  This gradually changed to resentment,

culminating in the May 1966 riots throughout the North during which most

Easterners residing in the North were attacked and killed.

A counter coup was staged by the Northern military officers on 29

July 1966 with two aims:  revenge on the East, and a break up of the

country.  But the wise counsel of dedicated Nigerians, interested and

well-disposed foreigners prevailed.  The Head of State, Maj. Gen Aguiyi

Ironsi and many other senior officers of Eastern origin  were killed.

After three anxious days of fear, doubts and non-government,

Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon, at the time the most senior officer of Northern

origin and then the Chief of Staff, Nigerian Army, emerged as the new

Nigerian political leader.  The lack of planning and the revengeful

intentions of the second coup manifested itself in the chaos, confusion

and the scale of unnecessary killings of the Easterners throughout the

country.   Even the authors of the coup could not stem the general

lawlessness and disorder, the senseless looting and killing which spread

through the North like wild fire on 29 September 1966.

Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon, the then Head of State, in a broadcast to

the people of the North in September said;  "I receive complaints daily

that up till now Easterners living in  the North are being killed and

molested and their property looted.  It appears that it is going beyond

reason and is now at a point of recklessness and

irresponsibility."  (3:9) Before then, in an effort to stop the killings

and to preserve the nation in one form or the other, an ad hoc conference

of the representatives of the regions was called on 9 August 1966 in

Lagos.  The meeting made the following recommendations:

           1.    Immediate steps should be taken to post military

personnel to barracks within their respective regions of origin.

           2.    A meeting of this committee or an enlarged body should

take place to recommend in a broad outline the form of political

association which the country should adopt in the future

           3.    Immediate steps should be taken to nullify or modify any

provisions of any decree which assumes extreme centralization.

           4.    The Supreme Commander should make conditions suitable for

a meeting of the Supreme Military Council urgently as a further means of

lowering tension.

The first recommendation was implemented on 13 August 1966.  Troops

of Eastern Nigeria origin serving elsewhere in the country were

officially and formally released and posted to Enugu, the capital of

Eastern Region, while troops of non-Eastern origin in Enugu moved to

Kaduna and Lagos.  This marked the beginning of division and disunity

within the rank and file of the Nigerian Armed Forces.  "This simple and

seemingly innocuous action broke the last thread and split the last

institution symbolizing Nigeria's nationhood and cohesion which had been

regularly tampered with by the politicians since 1962.  The rift  between

the Eastern Region and the rest of the country was total." (5:8)   Most of

the  civilian of Eastern Region origin who had never lived in the East

and would have continued to live elsewhere in the country lost

confidence and moved to the East.  Some of them when they arrived at

their destination became refugees in their own country

None of the other recommendations  was fully implemented except

nullification of the unification decree.  The implementation of the

recommendation with regards to the posting of troops to barracks within

their region of origin was relentlessly pursued by the political leaders

of Western Region after the exercise had been completed in the Eastern

Region.  They were afraid of the so - alled Northern troops domination

and probably of the safety of the troops of Western Region origin.

With the troops of Eastern Region back in Enugu and the non-Eastern

troops withdrawn from there, with Nigerians of non-Eastern origin driven

out of the East in their own interest, and with Easterners at home and

abroad returning home with news of Nigerian's brutality against them,

and with the oil flowing in the Eastern Region, the way was now open for

the implementation of the secession.  The East and the North began a

virulent of words through their radios and newspapers.  Early in 1967, a

peace negotiating meeting of the Supreme Military Council of the Federal